Julian the Apostate: The Last Pagan Emperor

Emperor Julian, often called Julian the Apostate, was a unique and controversial leader of the ancient Roman Empire.

Born into a time filled with chaos and the rise of Christianity, Julian’s path to becoming emperor was full of twists and turns.

Known as the last emperor to support the old Roman gods in a time when Christianity was becoming the main religion, Julian tried to bring back the traditions of the past.

Table of Contents

Early Life of Julian the Apostate

Flavius Claudius Julianus was born in AD 332 at Constantinople, the son of Julius Constantius, a half-brother of Constantine the Great. His mother, Basilina, the daughter of the governor of Egypt, died shortly after his birth.

His father was killed in AD 337, a victim of the power struggles within the Roman Empire. The murders were orchestrated by Constantius II, Constantine II, and Constans. These three Roman Emperors sought to eliminate not only their co-heirs Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, but also all other potential rivals.

After this massacre, Julian, his half-brother Constantius Gallus, Constantine’s sister Eutropia, and her son Nepotianus were the only surviving relatives of Constantine, apart from the emperors themselves.

Constantius II then took charge of Julian’s upbringing. He was placed in the care of Mardonius, a eunuch who educated him in the classical tradition of Rome. This education sparked Julian’s interest in literature, philosophy, and the old pagan gods. Despite being moved from Constantinople to Nicomedia for safety, Julian’s passion for the pagan classics remained strong.

In a remote fortress at Macellum in Cappadocia, Julian received a Christian education, but his love for pagan literature continued. After six years of exile, he was allowed to return to Constantinople, only to be moved again to Nicomedia by Constantius II.

Rise to Power

The turning point in Julian’s life came after the execution of his half-brother Constantius Gallus in AD 354. Julian was summoned to Mediolanum (Milan) and later permitted to continue his studies in Athens. However, in AD 355, Constantius II recalled him, needing someone to manage the Rhine frontier’s troubles.

Emperor Julian the Apostate, who was inexperienced in military affairs, was made Caesar in AD 355. He married Helena, the sister of the emperor, and was sent to the Rhine. Surprisingly, he recovered Colonia Agrippina in AD 356 and achieved a significant victory over the Alemanni near Argentorate (Strasbourg) in AD 357. His military successes continued with more victories over the Germans.

Julian’s leadership style resonated with the troops. He shared the hardships of military life with his soldiers, much like the respected Roman Emperor Trajan. Additionally, the general population in Gaul admired him for the extensive tax cuts he introduced.

Under Julian’s rule, the Roman central government underwent several changes. He decreed various reforms aimed at improving the efficiency and integrity of the administration. These reforms reflected Julian’s vision of a more streamlined, effective government, one that he believed was closer to the ideals of the empire’s founders.

Julian’s Religious Beliefs and Antipathy toward Christianity

Constantius II didn’t like the idea of a youth of Constantine’s blood being too close to the center of power, even if only as a student. Soon after, with his half-brother Gallus, Julian was moved again to a remote fortress at Macellum in Cappadocia.

There, Emperor Julian was given a Christian education. Yet his interest in the pagan classics continued undiminished.

Julian the Apostate, recognized for his philosophical perspective, embarked on a mission of religious reformation within the Roman Empire. His aim was not merely to destroy Christianity but to revive the ancient pagan hierarchy and traditions.

This endeavor was in line with his vision of restoring the glory of the ancient world. Julian believed that a return to the old ways was crucial for the empire’s unity and strength.

Julian’s actions were seen as a direct challenge to the established Christian order. He severely questioned the Christian doctrines, seeing them as incompatible with the traditional Roman values and beliefs. His approach was not just intellectual; it was also practical.

He sought to rebuild the pagan church and to reduce the influence of wealthy and educated Christians in society. This was a strategic move, aiming to shift the balance of power and religious influence within Roman territory.

Becoming an Apostate

Julian became an apostate primarily because he was educated in and deeply influenced by traditional Greco-Roman philosophical and religious beliefs, which conflicted with Christianity.

When Emperor Julian traveled to Constantinople, he publicly declared his allegiance to the ancient pagan gods. This bold move, especially coming from a member of the Roman Empire’s ruling family, was startling. His formal adherence to the Christian faith under Constantius II made this shift even more unexpected, cementing his reputation as Julian the Apostate.

Moreover, the Sassanid campaign, led by Julian, was also influenced by his religious beliefs. He envisioned an empire where the pagan gods were revered again, hoping for divine intervention in his military endeavors. This campaign was a part of his larger goal to reinforce Roman traditions and beliefs.

Julian’s Relationship with Other Religions

Julian the Apostate had a complex relationship with religions other than paganism. While he is most famous for opposing Christianity, his approach to other faiths was nuanced. Julian showed a particular interest in Judaism, evidenced by his plan to rebuild the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem.

This act was part of a larger strategy to counterbalance the growing power of the Christian Church. His interactions with various religious groups highlight his attempt to navigate the religious landscape of the Roman Empire.

Julian’s Military Campaigns

Julian led numerous military campaigns that showcased his abilities as a leader. Notably, the Sassanid campaign against the Persian Empire stands out. This was a significant part of his efforts to defend and expand Roman territory. His leadership in these campaigns was marked by strategic acumen and personal bravery, often fighting alongside armed Roman soldiers.

The Last Pagan Emperor

Julian the Apostate was the last pagan emperor of the Roman Empire, as his successors reinstated and solidified Christianity as the dominant religion of the empire following his death.

Shortly after, in December AD 361, Julian entered Constantinople as the sole emperor of the Roman world. Some of Constantius II’s supporters were executed, others were exiled. But Julian’s accession was by no means such a bloody one as when the three sons of Constantine had begun their reign.

The Christian church was now refused the financial privileges enjoyed under previous regimes, and Christians were excluded from the teaching profession. In an attempt to undermine the Christian position, Julian favored the Jews, hoping they might rival the Christian faith and deprive it of many of its followers. He even considered the reconstruction of the Great Temple at Jerusalem.

Though Christianity had established itself too firmly in Roman society to be successfully dislodged by Julian’s means, his moderate, philosophical nature did not allow for violent persecution and oppression of the Christians. So, his measures failed to make a significant impact.

If Julian the Apostate had been a man of the fiber of Constantine the Great, his attempted return to paganism might have been more successful.

A ruthless, single-minded autocrat who would have enforced his desired changes with bloody persecution might have succeeded. Large parts of the ordinary population were still pagans. But this high-minded intellectual needed to be more ruthless to use such methods.

Julian and Constantine

Julian the Apostate was a relative of Emperor Constantine the Great. Specifically, Julian was Constantine’s nephew. His father was Julius Constantius, who was a half-brother of Constantine the Great.

This familial connection placed Julian in the Constantinian dynasty, an important factor in his rise to power as the Roman Emperor.

Death

On 26 June AD 363, tragedy struck when an arrow hit Julian the Apostate during a skirmish with Persian cavalry. There were rumors, possibly spread by a Christian bishop or others, that a Christian in his own ranks speared Julian. Some even suggested that “no human hand could’ve dealt the fatal blow,” implying divine intervention or a supernatural cause.

Despite the uncertainty surrounding the exact circumstances, Julian’s injury proved fatal, and he died shortly after.

Initially, Julian was buried outside Tarsus, as per his wishes. However, his body was later exhumed and taken to Constantinople for reburial.

Julian’s Last Words

The last words of Julian the Apostate are shrouded in mystery and controversy. According to the Christian historian Theodoret, Julian uttered, “Thou hast conquered, Galilean,” in his final moments.

This statement, if true, would imply that Julian acknowledged the triumph of Christianity, led by Jesus Christ, over his efforts to revive paganism. However, many historians are skeptical of this account, considering it more likely to be Christian propaganda than a factual recounting of Julian’s last words. The true nature of his final statement remains a topic of debate and speculation.

Legacy of Emperor Julian

As a philosopher emperor, Julian the Apostate combined his military and political duties with deep philosophical inquiries. His Roman education played a significant role in shaping his views and actions. Julian’s philosophical perspective enabled him to envision a diversified empire where pagan customs would flourish alongside other beliefs, but his untimely death left many of his ambitions unfulfilled.

Also, Julian wrote extensively, blending his philosophical views with his political ideals. His writings reflect his deep belief in paganism and his criticism of Christianity. In these writings, Julian believed that a return to traditional Roman religious practices was essential for the empire’s cultural and spiritual health.

Indeed, the intellectual Julian the Apostate was a great writer, second only perhaps to the philosopher emperor Marcus Aurelius, composing excellent essays, satires, speeches, commentaries, and letters.

He is Rome’s second-ever philosopher-ruler after the great Marcus Aurelius. But if Marcus Aurelius was weighed down by war and plague, Julian’s most significant burden was that he belonged to a different age.

Trained classically and learned in Greek philosophy, he would have made a fine successor to Marcus Aurelius. But those days had gone; now, this distant intellect seemed out of place, at odds with many of his people and certainly with the Christian elite of society.

His appearance only further reinforced the image of a ruler of a bygone age. In a time when Romans were clean-shaven, Julian wore an old-fashioned beard reminiscent of Marcus Aurelius’s. Julian was of athletic, robust build.

Though vain and prone to listen to flattery, he was also wise enough to allow advisors to correct him where he made mistakes. As head of government, he proved an able administrator, seeking to revive the ancient cities of the eastern part of the empire, which had suffered in recent times and had begun to decline.

Measures were introduced to limit the effects of inflation on the empire, and attempts were made to reduce bureaucracy.

Like others before him, Julian also cherished the thought of one day defeating the Persians and annexing their territories into the empire.

Wrapping It Up

Julian was more than just someone who wanted to change the empire’s beliefs; he was also a strong leader. He led his troops to victory in fights and made some excellent changes to how the empire was run.

His sudden death in a battle shortened his time as emperor, and his dream of a pagan Rome died with him.

Nevertheless, his efforts show the struggles of pushing back against significant societal changes. Julian’s life story, filled with bold moves and big ideas, shows us what it’s like to be a leader during tough times.

Even though he couldn’t make his vision come true, Julian the Apostate is still remembered for his passionate stand and mark on one of history’s most exciting times.

References

https://www.jstor.org/stable/297183

https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvvn9n9#:~:text=The%20Roman%20emperor%20Julian%20

https://roman-emperors.sites.luc.edu/julian.htm

https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004416314/BP000005.xml?language=en